Types of Writing Genres

 

(Picture from Google Search)

NARRATIVE
Purpose: To amuse/entertain the readers and to tell a story
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Complication
3. Resolution
4. Reorientation
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Chronologically arranged

RECOUNT
Purpose: to retell something that happened in the past and to tell a series of past event
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Event(s)
3. Reorientation
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adjectives
Narrative and recount in some ways are similar. Both are telling something in the past so narrative and recount usually apply PAST TENSE; whether Simple Past Tense, Simple Past Continuous Tense, or Past Perfect Tense. The ways narrative and recount told are in chronological order using time or place. Commonly narrative text is found in story book; myth, fable, folklore, etc. Meanwhile, recount text is found in biography.
The thing that makes narrative and recount different is the structure in which they are constructed. Narrative uses conflicts among the participants whether natural conflict, social conflict or psychological conflict. In some ways narrative text combines all these conflicts. In the contrary, we do not find these conflicts inside recount text. Recount applies series of event as the basic structure

 

DESCRIPTIVE
Purpose: to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
Dominant Generic Structure:
1. Identification
2. Description
Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adverb
4. Using special technical terms

REPORT
Purpose: to presents information about something, as it is.
Generic Structure
1. General classification
2. Description
Dominant Language Feature
1. Introducing group or general aspect
2. Using conditional logical connection
3. Using Simple Present Tense

EXPLANATION
Purpose: To explain the processes involved in the formation or working of natural or socio-cultural phenomena.
Generic Structure:
1. General statement
2. Explanation
3. Closing
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Using passive voice
4. Using noun phrase
5. Using adverbial phrase
6. Using technical terms
7. Using general and abstract noun
8. Using conjunction of time and cause-effect.

 

ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION
Purpose: To reveal the readers that something is the important case
Generic Structure:
1. Thesis
2. Arguments
3. Reiteration/Conclusion
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using modals
2. Using action verbs
3. Using thinking verbs
4. Using adverbs
5. Using adjective
6. Using technical terms
7. Using general and abstract noun
8. Using connectives/transition

HORTATORY EXPOSITION
Purpose: to persuade the readers that something should or should not be the case or be done
Generic Structure:
1. Thesis
2. Arguments
3. Recommendation
Dominant Language features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using modals
3. Using action verbs
4. Using thinking verbs
5. Using adverbs
6. Using adjective
7. Using technical terms
8. Using general and abstract noun
9. Using connectives/transition
Then what is the basic difference between analytical and hortatory exposition. In simple word. Analytical is the answer of “How is/will” while hortatory is the answer of “How should”. Analytical exposition will be best to describe “How will student do for his examination? The point is the important thing to do. But for the question” How should student do for his exam?” will be good to be answered with hortatory. It is to convince that the thing should be done.

PROCEDURE
Purpose: to help readers how to do or make something completely
Generic Structure:
1. Goal/Aim
2. Materials/Equipments
3. Steps/Methods
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using Imperatives sentence
3. Using adverb
4. Using technical terms

DISCUSSION
Purpose: to present information and opinions about issues in more one side of an issue (‘For/Pros’ and ‘Against/Cons’)
Generic Structure:
1. Issue
2. Arguments for and against
3. Conclusion
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Use of relating verb/to be
3. Using thinking verb
4. Using general and abstract noun
5. Using conjunction/transition
6. Using modality
7. Using adverb of manner

REVIEW
Purpose: to critique or evaluate an art work or event for a public audience
dominant Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Evaluation
3. Interpretative Recount
4. Evaluation
5. Evaluative Summation
Dominant Language features:
1. Focus on specific participants
2. Using adjectives
3. Using long and complex clauses
4. Using metaphor

ANECDOTE
Purpose: to share with others an account of an unusual or amusing incident
Generic Structure:
1. Abstract
2. Orientation
3. Crisis
4. Reaction
5. Coda.
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using exclamations, rhetorical question or intensifiers
2. Using material process
3. Using temporal conjunctions

SPOOF
Purpose: to tell an event with a humorous twist and entertain the readers
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Event(s)
3. Twist
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adverb
4. Chronologically arranged

NEWS ITEM
Purpose: to inform readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
Dominant Generic Structure:
1. Newsworthy event(s)
2. Background event(s)
3. Sources
Dominant Language Features:
1. Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
2. Using action verbs
3. Using saying verbs
4. Using adverbs : time, place and manner.

 

Humanism and English Language Teaching

 

A.    Definition of Humanism

According to Oxford English Dictionary humanism means devotion to human interests. Whereas Longman American Dictionary stated that humanism is a system of beliefs that tries to solve human problems through science rather than religion. In this case, humanism is sometimes associated with the rejection of religion because humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on one's best understanding of one's individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental truth or an arbitrarily local source. While according to Dorrel (2002), humanism is a rational philosophy based on belief in the dignity of human beings, informed by science and motivated by human hope and human compassion.

 

B.   History of Humanism

Humanism is closely associates to the Italian Renaissance in the 15th-century. These early humanists created a philosophical movement based on what they discovered in ancient Roman and Greek manuscripts. During the Renaissance period in Western Europe, humanist movements attempted to demonstrate the benefit of gaining learning from classical, pre-Christian sources, which had previously been frowned upon by the Roman Catholic Church. At that time, many scientists were sentenced to death because their inventions were against the church belief. In the 1930s, humanism was identified with secularism because it contributes  reason, ethics, and justice, while rejects supernatural and religious ideas as a basis of morality and decision-making. 

In modern times, many humanist movements have become strongly aligned with atheism or non-religious beliefs. However, in the recent development, there is a new term called religious humanism as a unique integration of humanist ethical philosophy with the rituals and beliefs of some religions, although religious humanism still centers on human needs, interests, and abilities. Religious humanism  developed into more liberal religious organizations evolved in more humanistic directions.

 

C.    Theory of Humanism

 The most prominent figures in the theory of humanism are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

1.      Abraham Maslow

Maslow in McLeod (1997) stated that humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to their inner feelings and self concept. Based on his research, in 1943, Abraham Maslow set out five fundamental human needs and their hierarchical nature. Below is the original five stages of Maslow’s  hierarchy of need.

                  

                                                         (Picture was taken from en.Wikipedia.org)

                                                  Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need

According to Maslow, we cannot reach the higher needs if we have not satisfied the need from the bottom level. One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.  In 1970, two more needs were added by splitting two of the above five needs. Between esteem and self-actualization needs was added:

1.      Cognitive needs: knowledge, meaning, etc.

2.       Aesthetic needs: appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc

In 1990s, Self-actualization was divided into two concepts:

1.       Self-actualization, which is realizing one's own potential.

2.       Transcendence, which is helping others to achieve their potential.

However, the seven and eight level 'hierarchy of needs' models are later adaptations by others, based on the criticism of Maslow's work, not Maslow’s own work.

2. Carl Rogers 

In 1946, Rogers published Significant aspects of client-centered therapy (also called person centered therapy) that promotes counseling . The idea of counseling intends to perceive and help people to meet the needs on which they currently focused and also encourage them to reach higher needs and the greater things in life.

The basic concepts of humanism theory believe that human has free will so not all behavior is determined.  Second, All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum potential therefore a proper understanding of human behavior can only be achieved by studying humans - not animals.

Humanism shifted the focus of behavior to the individual / whole person rather than the unconscious mind, genes, observable behavior etc. Therefore, humanistic psychology satisfies most people's idea of what being human means because it values personal ideals and self-fulfillment. However, humanism seems to ignore biology and unconscious mind, unscientific or subjective concepts so that it reduces the validity of any data obtained, ethnocentric (biased towards Western culture) and the belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science. Moreover, it is extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow's causal relationships so that in some aspects has been falsified. 

 

D.   Humanism in English Language Teaching

Humanistic language teaching brings a new view of the language teaching which includes recognition of the importance of his or her personal development. Humanistic language teachers and theorists never talk about substituting the cognitive for the affective, but rather about adding the affective, both to facilitate the cognitive in language learning and to encourage the development of the whole person.

Stevick (1990) stated that the most well-known forerunners of humanism in ELT are Curran (1976) and Gattegno (1972). Curran advocated the use of Counselling-Learning  which later known as Community Language Learning (CLL). CLL seeks to encourage teachers to consider the learners as whole persons where their feelings, intellect, protective reactions, interpersonal relationships, and desire to learn are considered with empathy and balance.  In this practice, teachers sit outside a circle of learners and help them to talk about their personal and linguistic problems. The students decide the material, while the teacher is more of a facilitator, who fosters an emotionally secure environment. Curran believed that by this method, the anxiety or fear of making a fool of oneself will be lowered. Meanwhile, Gattegno advocated the Silent Way approach. He presented challenges for learners. These challenges developed the students' awareness and encouraged their independence.

Vashuhi (2011) suggest  five important components in humanistic language teaching. First is feeling. In a humanistic language classroom, the learners’ feelings are respected. Second is social relation. This encourages friendship and cooperation by developing interpersonal skills to accelerate language learning.  Third is responsibility.  This aspect accepts the need for criticism and correction.

Fourth is intellect which includes knowledge, reason and understanding. The last is self-actualization.

In line with the previous theorist, Bress (2007) stated that humanistic classroom activities should demonstrate deep thinking, creativity, empathy, communication and theorizing.

 

Humanistic Teachers

Bress (2005) suggested that humanistic teacher should have a good grasp of language learning theories as well as  be aware of the individual learners' 'developmental readiness' , which will determine when and how to teach each student. If necessary, they offer to solve their students’ problem. Humanistic teacher also needs to be aware of what motivates their students. Some will probably want to learn English because they think they need it for their future career (extrinsic motivation), while others want to study for the sake of it (intrinsic motivation).  Above all, the successful humanistic teachers  allow a combination of language learning theories and their own experience to interact with each others and understanding students’ affection to produce effective language lessons.

Teacher plays a different role from that of his/her students. They have a particular job but it does not mean that they have higher status. They try to provide students with learning opportunities, which the students are free to take or not. In this case, flexibility is really needed. Teacher needs to make a point of observing students very carefully so that they know when to introduce certain tasks, according to the progress the students are making. If teachers do not regard how students are responding, some students will be lost forever and lose confidence to learn English.

 

Humanism in Practice 

a.       Teaching language items

Every new language item is taught at the optimum time of readiness for the class and by fostering a sense of co-operation between the students and teacher. Such work on the concept of the target language needs to be repeated in a way that is appropriate to the abilities and progress of the group. After enough practice, through both teacher-centered and student-centered phases, the student should gradually learn the target language. 

b.      Teaching skills
Before the class able to understand the gist of a material, teacher should make sure that the students are mentally prepared for it. This means that the 'text’ is not too hard for them, arousing interest and setting a problem for the students to solve. Teacher need to enable learners to become more successful by carrying out certain situation. 

 

Humanistic Element in Other Approaches

            As we know that Humanism is a tenet or value so it can be applied in the other approaches but in different degree. Stevick (1990) gave three questions as a guideline to check the degree of humanism in the other approach such as Grammar-Translation, the Direct Method, Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, and the Communicative Approach. The three questions are:

1.   Which uniquely human attributes of the learner does this approach emphasize?

2.   What sort of freedom does this approach offer to the learner?

3.   How does this method contribute to human dignity?

While Vashuhi (2011) stated that Total Physical Response, the Silent Way, Community Language Learning and Suggestopedia are kind of humanism methodologies.

 

E. The Future Perspective of Humanistic Language Teaching

            Bress (2007) try to ensure that the development of today’s technology suggest  HLT into a higher profile where  professionals interest about what HLT means  became clearer. Vashuhi (2011) stated that humanism adds to the effectiveness in the learning process because it provides interesting process for the students.  A humanistic approach in teaching not only helps learners easily learn things but also develops their personality in various ways. They easily solve problems in life situations, have good reasoning capabilities and are self-developed with free-will and co-operation. Hongladarom (2012) suggest that humanistic education is necessary for equipping human beings for the future because it enables the young to cope best with the world. The teacher can only inspire, and learning really occurs when students embark on their own journey toward understanding themselves and their surroundings. Remembering what Socrates said, the teacher can only bring forth what is already in the students. The greatest joy of a teacher is to see students grow up intellectually and emotionally to be independent, sensitive and imaginative thinkers and doers. In sum, humanistic language teaching gets a good appreciation from practitioners ad educators. However, the practice in the classroom still needs more investigation and effort to find the best recipe of humanistic language teaching.

 

References

Bress, Paul. 2007. Humanistic Language Teaching in the  21^st Century. (Online),     (http://www.usingenglish.com/speaking-out, retrieved on  September 25^th  2012).

 

Bress, Paul. 2005. Humanistic Language Teaching. (Online),     (http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/humanistic-language-teaching, retrieved on  September 25^th  2012).

 

Brown,H.D. Teaching By Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (3^rd ed). White Plains, NY: Pearson,Inc.

 

Cline, Austin. 2012. What is Humanism? History of Humanism, Humanist Philosophy, Philosophers. Online), (http://atheism.about.com/od/philosophyschoolssystems/p/humanism.htm, retrieved on  September 25^th  2012).

 

Curran, C.A. 1968. Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Pursuit of Values. New York: Sheed and Ward.

 

Dorrel, Heather.2002. What is Humanism?. (Online),  (http://www.humanistsofutah.org/what.html retrieved on  September 22^nd 2012).

 

Gattegno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York: Educational Solutions Inc.

 

Hongladarom.2012. Humanistic Education in Today's and Tomorrow's World. (http://pioneer.chula.ac.th/~hsoraj/web/Humanist.html, retrieved on  September 25^th  2012).

Longman American Dictionary.

 

McLeod, S. 2007. Humanism, (Online), (http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html, retrieved on  September 23^th  2012).

 

Oxford English Dictionary .2006. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

 

Riley, Jim. 2012. Motivation Theory Maslow, (Online), (http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html retrieved on  September 27^th  2012).

 

Stevick, E.W. 1990. Humanism in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Vashuhi, r. 2011. Humanism: a human perspective in  English language teaching. (Online),     (,http://www.tjells.com/article/76_HUMANISM.pdf ,  retrieved on  September 25^th  2012).

The Analysis of Canis Major - Written by Robert Frost

Analyzed by Sitti Fatimah Saleng

State University of Malang

 

BIOGRAPHY OF THE POET

Robert Frost was born in San Francisco on March 26, 1874. He moved to New England at the age of eleven and became interested in reading and writing poetry during his high school years in Lawrence, Massachusetts. He was enrolled at Dartmouth College in 1892, and later at Harvard, though he never earned a formal degree.

Frost drifted through a string of occupations after leaving school, working as a teacher, cobbler, and editor of the Lawrence Sentinel. His first professional poem, "My Butterfly," was published on November 8, 1894, in the New York newspaper The Independent.

In 1895, Frost married Elinor Miriam White, who became a major inspiration in his poetry until her death in 1938. The couple moved to England in 1912, after their New Hampshire farm failed, and it was abroad that Frost met and was influenced by such contemporary British poets as Edward Thomas, Rupert Brooke, and Robert Graves. While in England, Frost also established a friendship with the poet Ezra Pound, who helped to promote and publish his work.

By the time Frost returned to the United States in 1915, he had published two full-length collections, A Boy's Will and North of Boston, and his reputation was established. By the nineteen-twenties, he was the most celebrated poet in America, and with each new book—including New Hampshire (1923), A Further Range (1936), Steeple Bush (1947), and In the Clearing (1962)—his fame and honors (including four Pulitzer Prizes) increased though his work is principally associated with the life and landscape of New England, and though he was a poet of traditional verse forms and metrics who remained steadfastly aloof from the poetic movements and fashions of his time, Frost is anything but a merely regional or minor poet. The author of searching and often dark meditations on universal themes, he is a quintessentially modern poet in his adherence to language as it is actually spoken, in the psychological complexity of his portraits, and in the degree to which his work is infused with layers of ambiguity and irony.

In a 1970 review of The Poetry of Robert Frost, the poet Daniel Hoffman describes Frost's early work as "the Puritan ethic turned astonishingly lyrical and enabled to say out loud the sources of its own delight in the world," and comments on Frost's career as The American Bard: "He became a national celebrity, our nearly official Poet Laureate, and a great performer in the tradition of that earlier master of the literary vernacular, Mark Twain."

About Frost, President John F. Kennedy said, "He has bequeathed his nation a body of imperishable verse from which Americans will forever gain joy and understanding."

Robert Frost lived and taught for many years in Massachusetts and Vermont, and died in Boston on January 29, 1963.

THE POEM 

Canis Major

by Robert Frost

 

The great Overdog,

That heavenly beast

With a star in one eye,

Gives a leap in the east.

 

He dances upright

All the way to the west

And never once drops

On his forefeet to rest.

I'm a poor underdog,

But tonight I will bark

With the great Overdog

That roams through the dark.

 

Poetry Analysis

a.      Language Style

Language style that is used in this poetry is African-American slang language. It is the language of the African-Americans who usually have lower education in societies. Since the poetry uses slang language, it contains many grammar deviations, such as:

b.      Theme

The theme of poem “Canis Major” is constellation

c.       Poetic form

This poem is some kind of combination between formula poem, in which every line is begun in the same way or particular kind of word in every line is inserted and rhymed-verse poem which utilizes both rhyme and rhythm as the poetic devices.

d.      Poetic device

·         Rhyme

The rhyme used in this poem is end rhyme. The rhyme schemes are:

a-b-c-b, a-b-c-b, a-b-a-b. The numbered lines rhyme in pairs (beast/east, west/rest, bark/dark).

·         Rhythm

/        v      /

1.      The great Overdog,

/           v          /

2.      That heavenly beast

V          /           v         

3.      With a star in one eye,

4.      Gives a leap in the east.

Were you to number the lines of the poem, you'd find that the even- You'd find that Frost varies the precise meter within the lines (sometimes two anapests (ta-da-DUM ta-da-DUM) and sometimes an iamb followed by an anapest (ta-DUM ta-da-DUM), but each line contains two stressed syllables. The choice of meter gives the verse a skipping sort of feel when read aloud.

 

Since the line one, three, and five is run-on lines, it seems that those six lines were originally three lines because if we continue the word de in the line one, three, and five to the next lines, there will only be three lines of iambic pentameter. The sentences, then, will be like this:

When I was home de Sunshine seemed like gold

When I was home de Sunshine seemed like gold

Since I come up North de Whole damn world’s turned cold.

v   /    v    /      v

7       I was a good boy

/     v       /     v    /

8       Never done no wrong

/    |  v    /   v   /       v

9       Yes, I was a good boy         

10     Never done no wrong

 

The third feet of line 7 and 9 are not finished, yet continue to the next lines (8 and 10). If we continue it that way, the rhymes will be iambic pentameter and the lines should be like this:

I was a good boy, never done no wrong

I was a good boy, never done no wrong

/       v       /      v   /    v

11     But this world is weary

/        v     /    v   /      v     /

12     An’ de road is hard an’ long

 

Line eleven is trochaic trimeter while line twelve is trochaic tetrameter, yet, the last foot is unfinished.

v   /    v   /      v

13     I fell in love with

v    /   v    /         v      /

14     A gal I thought was kind

15     I fell in love with

16     A gal I thought was kind

 

The same as what happens in the previous stanzas, the third feet of line 13 and 15 are not finished. Line 14 and 16 are iambic trimeter.

v        /       v     /     v   /     v

17     She made me lose ma money

v      /     v    /       v    /

18     An’ almost lose ma mind

Line 17 is almost iambic tetrameter, yet the last foot is imperfect. Line 18 is iambic trimeter.

/      v    /     v

19     Weary, weary

/      v    /   v  /    v   /  

20     Weary early in de morn

21     Weary, weary,

/    v     /   v  /    v    /

22     Early, early in the morn

/    v     /    v

23     I’s so weary

v   /     v    /    v    v     /

24     I wish I’d never been born

 

Line 19, 21, and 24 are trochaic dimeter while line 20 and 22 are imperfect (almost) trochaic tetrameter.

 

·      Stanza form

The stanza form of this poem is sestet, which contains six lines.

·      Repetition

This poem contains so many repetitions, such as: line 1 and 3 (Shen I was home de), line 2 and 4 (Sunshine seemed like gold), line 7 and 9 (I was a good boy), line 8 and 10 (Never done no wrong), line 13 and 15 (I fell in love with), line 14 and 16 (A gal I thought was kind), line 19 and 21 (Weary, weary), and line 20 and 22 (Early in the morn).

·      Alliteration

In the third stanza, line 17 (she made me lose ma money), there are some repetition of the same initial consonant sound of /m/ in the words “made”, “me”, “ma”, and “money.

·      Comparison

Simile :

The simile occurs in the first stanza, in line 2 and 4: “Sunshine seemed like gold”. The comparison device “like” is used to compare the sunshine and gold in terms of color (yellow) and the glowing nature of both.

e.       Messages and Moral Value

Through this poem, the writer expresses the sadness that a poor African-American feel because his heart was broken by a girl he thought was kind. Using the African-American slang language, he tries to raise the portrayal of African-American life, which is full of rebellion and hunger for freedom. The rebellion and hunger for freedom are expressed in the ungrammatical structure. It seems that Hughes (2004) also tries to do the same thing with the poem. He made his poem rhyming beautifully but does not really follow the rhyming rule which pays attention to the perfection of feet and lines. The lines in this poem are identical with Black folk music rhythm, which consists of songs with a strophic form, which presents successions of lines where each line is repeated or varied once (Nettl, 2005). According to Nett (2005), Folk music is commonly played by lower classes and rural population and closely associated with everyday activities such as ritual, work, love, and child rearing. By using folk music rhythm, Hughes (2004) once again tries to raise his community and introduce the culture.

In a love poem like this, Hughes (2004) does not forget to insert some portrayal about poverty and misery the African-Americans experience. He somehow wants the world to know the fact, that in African-American life, money is a critical issue that even a couple can break their relationship due to it.

The poem also implies the change in the poor boy’s life. The poor boy thinks that life in the United State is too hard for him compared to where he origins. Life was so wonderful when he was at his hometown, like “gold”, but it turns really dark when he came to the United States, which is expressed in line 6, (de) Whole damn world’s turned cold.

 

The Comments about “Po’ Boy Blues” and Its Implication in Language Teaching

In conclusion, this poem is very unique. It combines the beauty of rhyming lines with the slang language. It also portrays the African-American culture through the folk rhymes and some story inserted in it. It is suitable to be taught in university level, in a class which concerns about foreign culture, in this case, African-American culture. Analyzing the poem, students are exposed to rebellion spirit of the African-Americans, their culture, and the slang language. We can also use this poem as a media to teach grammar. By analyzing some sentences and words used from the poem, the students are expected to be able to point out the incorrect grammar.

 

References

http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/192#sthash.cQ8xrK9p.dpuf

Nettl, Bruno.  Folk Music. Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmon, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005. 

Hughes, Langston. 2004. Langston Hughes Poem. Classical Poetry Series. (Online), (www.poemhunter.com., accessed on January 6, 2009).